Xiongnu
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YUNANI
BAKTRIA
BAKTRIA
PAR-
THIA
THIA
Sargat
Shule
INDO-
YUNANI
YUNANI
SAKA
Korgantas
YUEZHI
SABII
Budaya
Ordos
Ordos
JIN
Tagar
Sagly
WUSUN
Budaya
Dian
Dian
EMPAYAR
SELEUKIA
SELEUKIA
EMPAYAR
MAURYA
MAURYA
DINASTI
HAN
HAN
XIONGNU
Khotan
PTOLE-
MAIOS
MAIOS
MERUWI
Sarmatia
Alan
Sha-
jing
jing
Wilayah Xiongnu pada abad ke-2 SM (sebelum Perang Han–Xiongnu pada 133 SM – 89 TM): ia merangkumi Mongolia, timur Kazakhstan, timur Kyrgyzstan, selatan Siberia, dan bahagian-bahagian utara China seperti barat Manchuria, Xinjiang, Mongolia Dalam dan Gansu.[1][2][3][4]
- Otuken[5][6] (sekitar Pergunungan Khangai masa kini, Arkhangai)[7]
- Longcheng (ibu kota kemudian)[8]
• 220 - 209 SM
• 209 - 174 SM
• 174 - 161 SM
• 46 TM
• Didirikan
• Dibubarkan
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Xiongnu (Bahasa Cina: 匈奴code: zh is deprecated ; pinyin: Xiōngnú,[12] [ɕjʊ́ŋ.nǔ]; Jawi: شيوڠنوcode: ms is deprecated ) ialah sebuah gabungan puak[13] orang nomad yang, menurut sumber Cina purba, dahulu tinggal di Tataran Eurasia timur dari abad ke-3 SM hingga akhir abad ke-1 Masihi. Empayar Xiongnu diasaskan oleh pemimpin tertinggi Modu Chanyu selepas tahun 209 SM.
Selepas menggulingkan penguasa mereka sebelum ini,[14] orang Yuezhi, Xiongnu menjadi kuasa dominan di tataran Asia Timur, berpusat di Penara Mongolia. Orang Xiongnu juga aktif di kawasan-kawasan yang kini sebahagian daripada Siberia, Mongolia Dalam, Gansu dan Xinjiang. Hubungan dengan jiran mereka di tenggara, dinasti-dinasti Cina, adalah kompleks—kadangkala aman, berperang, dan penaklukan. Akhirnya, Xiongnu dikalahkan oleh dinasti Han dalam konflik selama berabad-abad, yang membawa kepada konfederasi mereka berpecah kepada dua, serta penempatan semula secara paksa begitu ramai orang Xiongnu dalam sempadan Han. Semasa era Enam Belas Kerajaan, sebagai salah satu daripada "Lima Bangsa Gasar", mereka mengasaskan negeri-negeri dinasti Han-Zhao, Liang Utara dan Hu Xia di utara China.
Cubaan untuk mengaitkan Xiongnu dengan bangsa Saka dan Sarmatia yang berdekatan pernah menjadi topik berkontroversi. Walau bagaimanapun, bidang arkeogenetik telah mengesahkan mereka rnah inberteraksi dengan Xiorang ongnu, dan juga hubungan mereka dengan Hun .Identiti teras etnik Xiongnu telah menjadi subjek hipelbagai potesis, kerana hanya beberapa perkataan, terutamanya gelaran dan nama peribadi, masih terpelihara dalam sumber-sumber Cina. Nama Xiongnu mungkin serumpun dengan nama Hun dan/atau Huna,[15][16][17] tetapi ini dipertikaikan.[18][19] Antara hubungannya dengan bahasa lain—semuanya juga berkontroversi—yang dicadangkan oleh pakar termasuk Turkik,[20][21][22][23][24][25] Iran,[26][27][28] Mongolik,[29] Ural,[30] Yenisei,[18][31][32][33] atau pelbagai etnik.[34]
Rujukan
Petikan
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- ^ Zheng Zhang (Chinese: 鄭張), Shang-fang (Chinese: 尚芳). 匈 – 上古音系第一三千八百九十字 [匈 - The 13890th word of the Ancient Phonological System]. ytenx.org [韻典網code: zh is deprecated ] (dalam bahasa Cina). Rearranged by BYVoid.
- ^ Zheng Zhang (Chinese: 鄭張), Shang-fang (Chinese: 尚芳). 奴 – 上古音系第九千六百字 [奴 – The 9600th word of the Ancient Phonological System]. ytenx.org [韻典網code: zh is deprecated ] (dalam bahasa Cina). Rearranged by BYVoid.
- ^ Gökalp, Ziya (2020). Türk Medeniyeti Tarihi. ISBN 9786054369461 – melalui Google Books.
- ^ "Xiongnu People". britannica.com. Encyclopædia Britannica. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 11 March 2020. Dicapai pada 25 July 2015.
- ^ Chase-Dunn, C.; Anderson, E. (18 February 2005). The Historical Evolution of World-Systems (dalam bahasa Inggeris). Springer. m/s. 36-37. ISBN 978-1-4039-8052-6.
- ^ Grousset 1970.
- ^ Pulleyblank 2000.
- ^ Schuessler 2014.
- ^ a b Beckwith 2009.
- ^ "Xiongnu". Encyclopedia Iranica online. 15 November 2006. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 4 January 2012.
- ^ Hucker 1975.
- ^ Savelyev, Alexander; Jeong, Choongwon (10 May 2020). "Early nomads of the Eastern Steppe and their tentative connections in the West". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.18. PMC 7612788.
The predominant part of the Xiongnu population is likely to have spoken Turkic (Late Proto-Turkic, to be more precise)
- ^ Robbeets, Martine; Bouckaert, Remco (1 July 2018). "Bayesian phylolinguistics reveals the internal structure of the Transeurasian family". Journal of Language Evolution. 3 (2): 145–162. doi:10.1093/jole/lzy007. ISSN 2058-4571.
- ^ "Northern Dynasties and Southern Dynasties", Chinese Architecture, Princeton University Press: 72–103, 14 May 2019, doi:10.2307/j.ctvc77f7s.11, dicapai pada 1 April 2023Larousse, Éditions. "Turcs ou Turks - LAROUSSE". www.larousse.fr (dalam bahasa Perancis). Dicapai pada 1 April 2023.
- ^ Book of Zhou, vol. 50.
- ^ Sims-Williams 2004.Pritsak 1959.
- ^ Harmatta 1994: "Puak-puak diraja dan raja-raja mereka (shan-yü) memakai nama-nama Iran dan semua perkataan Hsiung-nu yang dicatat oleh orang Cina boleh dikaitan datang daripada bahasa Iran jenis Saka. Oleh itu, jelas bahawa majoriti suku Hsiung-nu bercakap dalam bahasa Iran Timur."
- ^ Bailey 1985.
- ^ Jankowski 2006.
- ^ "Anthropology of Archaeological Populations from Northeast Asia" (PDF). Oriental Studies. Dankook University Institute of Oriental Studies. 49: 25, 27. February 2011. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal (PDF) pada 29 July 2013.
- ^ Di Cosmo 2004.
- ^ Adas 2001.
- ^ Vovin, Alexander (2000). "Did the Xiongnu speak a Yeniseian language?". Central Asiatic Journal. 44 (1): 87–104. JSTOR 41928223.
- ^ 高晶一, Jingyi Gao (2017). "Quèdìng xià guó jí kǎitè rén de yǔyán wéi shǔyú hànyǔ zú hé yè ní sāi yǔxì gòngtóng cí yuán" 確定夏國及凱特人的語言為屬於漢語族和葉尼塞語系共同詞源 [Xia and Ket Identified by Sinitic and Yeniseian Shared Etymologies]. Central Asiatic Journal. 60 (1–2): 51–58. doi:10.13173/centasiaj.60.1-2.0051. JSTOR 10.13173/centasiaj.60.1-2.0051.
- ^ Geng 2005.
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